what is marble and used for ?

Marble is a metamorphic rock that may be foliated or non-foliated, composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonlycalcite or dolomite. Geologists use the term "marble" to refer to metamorphosed limestone; however, stonemasons use the term more broadly to encompass unmetamorphosed limestone.^[1] Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material.

Etymology

Carlo Franzoni's sculptural marble chariot clock depicting Clio, the Greek muse of history.Marble wall of Ruskeala. Republic of Karelia, Russia

The word "marble" derives from the Greek μάρμαρον (mármaron),^[2] from μάρμαρος (mármaros), "crystalline rock, shining stone",^[3][4] perhaps from the verb μαρμαίρω (marmaírō), "to flash, sparkle, gleam";^[5] R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a "Pre-Greek origin is probable."^[6]

Folded and weathered marble atGeneral Carrera Lake, Chile

This stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning "marble-like." While the English term resembles the French marbre, most other European languages follow the original Greek—see Persian and Irish marmar, Spanish mármol, Italian marmo, Portuguese mármore, Welsh, Slovene,German, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish marmor, Finnish marmori, Romanian marmură, Polish marmur,Dutch marmer, Turkish mermer, Czech mramor, and Russian мрáмор (mramor). In Hungarian it is calledmárvány.

Physical origins

Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonlylimestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock (protolith) have typically been modified or destroyed.

Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally high magnesium limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.

Types[edit]

Main article: List of types of marble

Examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations:

Marble	Color	Location	Country
Pentelic marble[7]	pure-white, fine-grained semitranslucent	Mount Pentelicus (Πεντελικό όρος), Attica (Ἀττική)	Greece
Connemara marble	green	Connemara, County Galway	Ireland
Creole marble	white and blue/black	Pickens County, Georgia	United States
Etowah marble	pink, salmon, rose	Pickens County, Georgia	United States
Makrana marble	white	Makrana, Nagaur district, Rajasthan	India
Murphy marble	white	Pickens and Gilmer Counties, Georgia	United States
Nero Marquina marble	black	Markina, Spain	Spain
Parian marble	pure-white, fine-grained	Island of Paros (Πάρος), South Aegean (Νοτίου Αιγαίου)	Greece
Carrara marble	white or blue-gray	Carrara, Tuscany	Italy
Purbeck marble	Gray/brown	Isle of Purbeck, Dorset	United Kingdom
Ruskeala marble	white	near Ruskeala (Рускеала), Karelia (Карелия)	Russia
Rușchița marble[8]	white, pinkish, reddish	Poiana Ruscă Mountains, Caraș-Severin County	Romania
Sienna marble[9]	yellow with violet, red, blue or white veins	near Siena, Tuscany	Italy
Bianco Sivec	white	near Prilep (Прилеп), Pelagonia (Пелагониски)	Macedonia
Swedish green marble	green	near Kolmården, Södermanland	Sweden
Sylacauga marble	white	Talladega County, Alabama	United States
Vermont marble	white	Proctor, Vermont	United States
Yule marble	uniform pure white	near Marble, Colorado	United States
Wunsiedel marble	white	Wunsiedel, Bavaria	Germany

Uses

Ritual amphora of veined marble from Zakros. New palace period(1500–1450 BC), HeraklionArchaeological Museum, Crete.

Marble Products in Romblon,Philippines.

Sculpture

White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which gives "life" to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting.

Construction marble

Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish.^[10] More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the term "marble" is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation.

Ashgabat, the capital city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the world's highest concentration of white marble buildings.^[11]

Production[edit]

According to the United States Geological Survey, U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest wasconstruction aggregate. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.

In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. Italy and China were the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, while Spain and India produced 9% and 8%, respectively. Italy is the world leader in marble export, with 20% share in global marble production, followed by China with 16%, India with 10%, Spain with 6%, and Portugal with 5%.^[12]

Occupational safety[edit]

Dust produced by cutting marble could cause lung disease but more research needs to be carried out on whether dust filters and other safety products reduce this risk.^[13]

United States[edit]

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m³ total exposure and 5 mg/m³ respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit(REL) of 10 mg/m³ total exposure and 5 mg/m³ respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.^[14]

Microbial degradation[edit]

The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium Methylophaga murata was isolated from deteriorating marble in the Kremlin.^[15] Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from Milan cathedral; black Cladosporium attacked dried acrylic resin^[16] using melanin.^[17]

Cultural associations[edit]

Jadwiga of Poland's sarcophagus by Antoni Madeyski, Wawel Cathedral,Cracow

Relief on the Marble Door of theHagia Sophia in Istanbul

As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material, and it is often imitated in background patterns for computer displays, etc.

Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts; Marblehead, Ohio; Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; Marble Falls, Texas, and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon that are on display in the British Museum. They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin.

Artificial marble[edit]

Marble dust is combined with cement or synthetic resins to make reconstituted or cultured marble. The appearance of marble can be simulated with faux marbling, a painting technique that imitates the stone's color patterns.